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Elsevier , Amsterdam. 618 pp. 1992. WEATHERING,
SOILS AND PALEOSOLS Martini,
I.P. and
Chesworth, W. (eds.) กก
กก Contents
A.
INTRODUCTI0N A
short review of themes and concepts examined in this book Chapter
1. Reflections on soils and
paleosols I.P. Martini and W
Chesworth, 3 Introduction,
3; Definition of soils, 4; Soil and energy, 5; Zonality of soils, 6; Mineral
concentrations in soils, 9; Sedimentary facies and soil catenas, 10; Paleosols
and time, 11; Paleosols and lifeforms, 13; Classification, 13; Future research
trends, 14; References, 15 B.
PROCESSES ON AND NEAR THE PLANETARY LAND SURFACE The processes of weathering and
diagenesis Clay
minerals as the principal products of weathering and soil formation Chapter
2. Weathering systems W. Chesworth, 19 Conceptual
view of weathering systems, 19; The inorganic solids, 21; The aqueous
environment, 22; Major weathering trends in a pe-pH framework, 25; The acid
trend, 26; The alkaline trend, 30; The reduced trend, 30;A pedogenic grid, 31;
Weathering rates, 32; Geographical distribution, 33; Conclusions: thesoil-sediment
connection, 35; References, 38 Chapter
3. Extraterrestrial soils - the lunar experience J.E Lindsay, 41 Introduction,
41; The moon, 42; The meteorite flux, 43; Lunar soil, 45; Soil structure, 47;
Physical properties, 47; Composition, 47; Petrography, 48; Texture of the lunar
soil, 55; Grain size, 55; Shape, 57; Evolution of the lunar soil, 58; Energy
partitioning and the flux of detrital materials, 58; Textural evolution, 61; The
comminution dominated stage, 61; The agglutination dominated stage, 63; The
steady state stage, 64; Soil maturity, 65; Other worlds, 66; References, 68 Chapter
4. Incipient weathering: some new concepts on weathering, clay formation and
organization M. Robert and D. Tessier, 71 Introduction,
71; Weathering processes in
relation to mineral structure, 71; Microsystems and microsites, 75; The
nanoscale: characterization of weathering primary stages, 79; Development of a
methodology, 79; Main studies on primary mineral weathering, 80; Non
phyllosilicates, 80; Phyllosilicates, 81; Discussion, 85; The nanoscale:
characterization of clay texture and its variability, 87; Reference clays, 88;
Smectites, 88; Clay size variability in relation to chemical composition, 91;
Textural changes, 91; Kaolinites, halloysites, illites and vermiculites,
91; Soil clays, 93; Clay associations,
96; Clay behavior, 96; Conclusion, 99; References, 99
Chapter
5. Alteration products at the earth's surface - the clay minerals LJ. Evans,
107 Introduction,
107; The structures of clay minerals, 108; Phyllosilicate clays:
1: 1 clay minerals, 2: 1 clay minerals, 110; The crystalline non-silicate
minerals, 112; The non-crystalline and poorly crystalline minerals, 113;
Occurrence of clay minerals. 114; Soils, 114; Sediments, 115; Lacustrine and
estuarine sediments, 115; Oceanic sediments, 116; Sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic rocks, 118; Formation of clay minerals, 118; Weathering, 118;
Hydrothermal alteration, 120; Diagenesis, 121; Future research, 122; References
122 Chapter
6. Diagenesis and metasomatism of weathering profiles, with emphasis on
Precambrian paleosols H. W Nesbitt, 127 Introduction,
127; Methodology, 128; Introduction, 128; The A-CN-K(feldspar) diagram, 128 The
A-CNK-FM(mafics) diagram, 131; Predicted
trends using mass balances, 132; Congruent dissolution of feldspars, 132;
Incongruent dissolution of plagioclase, 132;
Al immobile, 132; Al mobilized, 134; Incongruent
dissolution of K-feldspar, 135; Incongruent dissolution of both feldspars, 135;
Predicted trends using kinetic data, 137; Predicted and observed trends in A-CN-K
diagrams, 139; Predicted and observed trends in A-CNK-FM diagrams 140
Interpretation of a Paleozoic paleosol 141; Interpretation of three Precambrian
(Huronian) paleosols, 144; Introduction, 144; Ville Marie paleosol, 144; Pronto
Mine Granite paleosol, 146; Denison Mine basaltic paleosol, 148; Summary, 150;
References, 151 C.
THE PRESENT LAND SURFACE OF THE EARTH Selected
soils from recent landscapes and a variety of climatic zones Chapter
7. Soils of Alpine mountains J.P. Legros, 155 Introduction,
155; Altitude belts according to climate, vegetation and soils, 156; General
outline, 156; Variations in the general pattern, 160; Pedological processes in
mountainous terrain, 161; Rock fragmentation and soil functioning, 161;
Solubility, particle size and mineralogy of soils, 162; Wind contribution, 164;
Principal geo-morpho-pedological systems, 165; Calcshale soils, 165; Soils over
limestone, 167; Soils over granular crystalline rocks, 169; Soils over volcanic
rocks, 173; Other pedolithic systems seen in mountains, 174; Soils over marly
limestone, 174; Soils over marls and heavy clays of glacial origin, 174; Soils
over gypsum, 175; Soils over the greenstones of the Alps (serpentinites,
prasinites), 175; Conclusion, 176; References, 176 Chapter
8. Soils of cold climate regions I.B.
Campbell and G.G.C. Claridge, 183 Introduction,
183; Definition of cold climate lands, 183; Characteristic processes of cold
climate lands, 184; Influence of ice, 184; Weathering regimes, 185; Soil
biological regimes, 185; Zonation of cold climate lands, 185; Definition of
zones, 185; Subarctic zone, 186; Tundra zone, 187; Subpolar Desert zone, 187;
Polar Desert zone, 187; Cold Desert zone, 188; Soils of the Subarctic zone, 189;
Soils of the Tundra zone, 190; Wet and dry Tundra, 190; Soils of the wet Tundra,
190; Soils of the dry Tundra, 191; Soils of the Subpolar Desert, 192; Soils of
the Polar Desert zone, 192; Soils of the Cold Desert zone, 194; Distribution of
Cold Desert soils, 194; Soil horizons, 195; Soil particle size, 196; Chemical
weathering and soil mineralogy, 197; Pedogenic gradients in cold climate
regions, 198; Summary and conclusions, 200; References, 200
Chapter
9. Organic soils W. Shotyk, 203 Introduction,
203; Classification of organic soil
materials, 204; Sedimentary organic materials, 205; Sedentary organic materials,
207; Classification of organic soils, 208; Marshes, 209; Swamps, 209; Fens, 209;
Bogs, 210; Formation of organic soils, 210; Terrestrialization, 210;
Paludification, 210; Summary of the geochemistry of peatlands, 213; The chemical
properties of peats, 213; Physical properties, 213; Ultimate chemical
composition, 213; Physico-chemical properties, 213; The chemical properties of
peatlands, 213; Abundance and distribution of mineral matter, 213; Abundance and
distribution of inorganic constituents, 214; The chemical properties of peatland
waters, 214; Chemical composition, 214; pH, conductivity and alkalinity, 215;
Redoxchemistry, 215; Environmental geochemistry of peatlands, 215; Effects on
the lithosphere, 215; Dissolution of primary minerals, 215; Precipitation of
secondary minerals, 216; Organic enrichment of trace metals, 216; Effects on the
hydrosphere, 217; Dissolved organic matter, 217; pH and inorganic constituents,
217; Effects on the atmosphere, 218; Peatlands as a source of methane, 218;
Peatlands as a sink for carbon dioxide, 218; Summary, 219; References, 219 Chapter
10. Desertsoils A. Watson, 225 Introduction, 225;
Classification of desert soils, 227; Background, 227; The USDA Soil
Classification system, 229; The FAO SoiI Classification system, 229; Desert soil
classification in the USSR and Australia, 231; Soil mapping in deserts, 232;
Parent materials, 233; Weathering processes, 234; Salt weathering, 234;
Extrinsic materials, 236; Silt and clay, 236; Salt, 236; Clastic and clayey
soils, 237; Saline and sodic soils, 239; Soil crusts, 241; Diagenetic features
of desert soils, 245; Desert soils and geomorphology, 247; Desert palaeosols,
249; Summary, 251; References, 253 Chapter
11. Quaternary soil chronosequences in various environments -extremely arid to
humid tropical P. W. Birkeland, 261 Introduction,
261; Extremely arid to semi-arid soils with salt accumulations, 263; Soil in
temperate regions (<100 cm MAP), 268; High elevation soils on tills, 269;
Soils on tills at mountain fronts, 270; Soils on river and marine deposits, 271;
Chronosequences in humid areas (>100 cm MAP), 272; Comparative data on clay
and iron buildup and PDI in soils in different climates, 273; Soil development,
steady state and thresholds, 275; Applications, 277; Estimating ages of fault
movements, 277; Using chronosequence data in studies of paleosols, 277;
References, 278 Chapter
12. Weathering in humid regions, with emphasis on igneous rocks and their
metamorphic equivalents F. Macias and W. Chesworth, 283 Introduction,
283; The geological factor, 284; Parent rock as a soil forming factor, 285;
Time, 287; Rock-water interactions in the soil zone, 288; The aqueous
environment, 288; The importance of feedback, 293; Weathering of igneous and
metamorphic rocks in humid regions, 294; Igneous rocks, 295; The ferralitic
trend, 295; The andosolic trend, 297; The Podzolic trend, 298; Metamorphic
rocks, 299; Discussion, 300; Conclusions, 301; References, 306 D.
ADVANCED WEATHERING STAGES ON LANDSCAPES NOT RECENTLY AFFECTED BY TECTONIC OR
GLACIAL ACTIVITY Ferrallitic
soils, duricrusts and exogenic mineral deposits Chapter
13. Calcrete A.R. Milnes, 309 Introduction,
309; Character and distribution of calcretes, 310; Development of concepts of
the origin of calcretes, 312; Studies in North America, 312; Interpretation of
macroscopic forms and morphogenetic sequences, 312; Elaboration of the processes
and support for an eolian origin for the carbonate, 313; The time frame, 314; The
Mediterranean region, 316; Catenary concept, 316; Biological influences, 316;
Australian studies, 317; Distribution, field relationships and
macromorphological forms, 317; Chemical and mineralogical characteristics, 320;
Identification of biological influences, 322; Assessments of the time frame,
322; Characteristics of selected calcrete profiles in South Australia, 323;
Calcretes of the Neogene coasts, 323; Poochera quarry, 325; Macromorphological
description; 325; Chemical composition, 327; Mineralogical data, 328; Piednippie,
330; Calcretes of the inland areas, 331; Caliph, 331; Klein Point, 334;
Macromorphological description, 336; Chemical composition, 336; Mineralogical
data, 338; Development of the profiles, 338; Province of the Neogene coasts,
339; The inland province, 340; Discussion, 343; References, 344 Chapter
14. Silcretes A.R. Milnes and M. Thiry, 349 Introduction,
349; The nature of silcretes, 350; The French experience, 351; Silcretes with
complex structure and fabric, 351; Basal granular horizon, 352; Prismatic
columnar horizon, 353; Pseudo-nodular columnar horizon, 356; Pseudo-breccia
horizon, 356; Sand horizon, 357; Development of the profile, 357; Silcretes with
simple structure and fabric, 358; Distribution and form, 358; Origin, 360;
Relationships of silcretes with paleosurfaces, 361; Australian examples, 364;
Southwestern part of the Eromanga Basin, 364; Zones of groundwater
silicification, 365; Macromorphological features, 365; Micromorphological and
mineralogical features, 365; Pedogenic silcrete, 367; Macromorphological
features, 367; Micromorphological features, 368; Formation of the silcretes,
369; Time and environment, 370; Relationships of silcretes with paleogeography
370; The Beda Valley paleo-toposequence, 370; The Todd River Plain, 371;
Discussion, 372; Geochemistry of solutions and the sequence of silica deposits,
372; Water regime, 373; Time
frameworks, 374; References, 374 Chapter
15. Diversity and terminology of lateritic profiles Y. Tardy, 379 Introduction:
definition of laterites, 379; The three domains of common lateritic profiles,
380; Saprolites and the so called alteration domain, 382; The
coarse saprolite, 382; The fine saprolite or lithomarge, 383; Leaching or
accumulation of iron and aluminum in lithomarges, 383; Problems of terminology,
386; Smectitic saprolite and pistachio horizons, 386; Glaebular domains and the
ferricrete profile, 387; Mottle zones and nodular horizons, 387; The ferricrete
formation, 389; The gritty layer of surface dismantling, 390; The Az leached
horizon and sub-surface ferricrete dismantling, 391; Terminology, 391;
Conclusion: ferricrete metabolism, 392; The soft zone, 393; Three possible
origins, 393; Concretion and pisolite formation in Ultisols or Oxisols, 393;
Oxisols with no glaebular development, 395; Lateritic bauxites, 396;
Distribution of gibbsite, 397; Secondary
formation of pisolites and boehmite, 397; Distribution of hematite and goethite,
398; Conclusion, 399; References, 401 Chapter
16. Geochemistry and evolution of lateritic landscapes Y. Tardy and C. Roquin,
407 Introduction.
407; Autochthony, allochthony and lithodependence of ferricretes, 407;
Mineralogical and geochemical diversity of the lateritic patchworks, 408; Age of
lateritic surfaces, 408; Allochthony or autochthony of ferricretes, 410;
Lithodependence of young duricrusts and chemical homogenization of old
ferricretes, 413; Conclusion, 415; Remobilization of surficial material by
termite activity, 415; Vertical lowering of lateritic landscapes, 417; Gold
distribution in laterites, 417; Rates of chemical erosion and weathering and of
landscape lowering, 419; Schematic evolution of a ferricrete and bauxite covered
landscape, 419; Successions of hydrated and dehydrated minerals in lateritic
profiles, 421; Dehydration reactions in Al, Fe and Mn-systems, 421; Gibbsite and
kaolinite successions in lateritic profiles, 422;
Climatic
and hydrostatic factors governing the thermodynamic activity of water in
lateritic profiles, 423; Chemical composition and climatic distribution of
goethite and hematite in soil profiles and landscapes, 426; Temperature, 426;
Relative humidity of the soil atmosphere, 426; pH and organic carbon content,
427; Distribution of Al-hematite and Al-goethite in laterites, 428;
Thermodynamic stability field of Al-goethite and Al-hematite, 428; Stability
diagrams, 429; Conclusions, 430; Periatlantic
climates and paleoclimates; the role of temperature and water activity in the
distribution and mineralogical composition of bauxites and ferricretes, 423;
References, 437 Chapter
17. Metallogeny of weathering: an introduction D.B.
Nahon, B. Boulange and F. Colin, 445 Introduction,
445; Lateritic weathering profiles, 445; Concentrations of gold, 447;
Gold-bearing lateritic profiles of Gabon, 447; Reprecipitation of gold in
laterites, 449; Mechanisms of lateritic weathering of gold, 450; Bauxitic
concentrations, 453; Lateritic bauxitization, 453; Bauxites of Lakota, Ivory
Coast, 454; Mechanisms of bauxitization, 456; Concentrations of oxides and
hydroxides of manganese, 457; Role of the parent rock, 457; Mineral sequences of
weathering, 457; Nickeliferous concentrations, 460; Nickeliferous silicate and
oxide horizons, 460; Mineral sequences of weathering, 461; Distribution of
nickel, 462; Cupriferous concentrations, 464; Character of weathering
cupriferous concentrations, 464; Mineral sequences of weathering, 464;
Conclusions, 466; References, 467 E.
THE ROLE OF PALEOSOLS IN INTERPRETING ANCIENT LANDSCAPES The
present is the key to the past Chapter
18. Paleopedology: stratigraphic relationships and empirical models V.P. Wright,
475 Introduction,
475; Paleosol recognition, 476; Stratigraphy terminology and concepts, 476;
Paleosol-landscape relationships, 479; Paleosols at major unconformities, 479;
Paleosols in ancient alluvial sequences: geomorphic and stratigraphic
relationships, 480; Floodpalin soils: geomorphology and pedostratlgraphy, 481;
Arid alluvial fans: geomorphology and pedostratigraphy, 486; Modelling of
alluvial pedostratigraphic sequences, 493; Summary, 494; References, 495 Chapter
19. Underclays and related paleosols associated with coals R.E. Hughes, P.I.
DeMaris and W.A. White, 501 Introduction,
501; Definition of underclay and related units, 502; Hypotheses of origin, 503;
Cyclothem association, 503; Methods of investigation, 505; Current
knowledge and interpretations, 507; Pennsylvanian underclays in Illinois,
507; Seat rocks, 512; Underclay profiles, 512; Underclays of other places
and ages, 513; Mineral
matter associated with coals, 515; Roof and overlying strata, 517; Flint clays
and tonsteins, 517; The role of plants in the formation of paleosols, 518;
Future research needs, 520; Summary, 520; References, 521 Chapter
20. Mesozoic and Tertiary paleosols Mary J. Kraus, 525 Introduction;
525; Paleosols and the Mesozoic-Tertiary stratigraphic record, 526; Soil
formation versus sedimentation and erosion, 526; Ancient aggradational systems,
527; Ancient erosional landscapes, 528; Paleosols in alluvial rocks, 530;
Lateral variability in paleosols, 530; Intrabasinal variability in paleosols,
535; Future
trends, 536; Remote sensing, 536; Sediment accumulation rates, 537; Reservoir
prediction, 538; Summary, 539; References, 540 Chapter
21. Paleozoic paleosols G.J. Retallack, 543 Introduction,
543; Entisols, 544; Inceptisols, 546; Histosols, 549; Aridisols, 550; Vertisols,
551; Alfisols, 551; Spodosols, 553; Ultisols, 555; Oxisols, 556; Coordinated
evolution of soil and life, 557; References, 560 F.
CLASSIFICATI0NS OF VARIOUS EARTH MATERIALS An
examination of the concepts involved, with examples Chapter
22. Classification of earth materials: a brief examination of examples W.
Chesworth, G.A. Spiers, L.J. Evans and I.P. Martini, 567 Introduction,
567; Classification of earth materials, 568; Classification of minerals, 571;
Classification of rocks, 571; Nomenclature of igneous rocks, 571; Nomenclature
of sediments and sedimentary rocks, 573; Nomenclature of metamorphic rocks, 577;
Classification of soils, 579; Discussion, 581; Conclusion, 584; References, 586
References
Index, 587 Subject Index , 609 |
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